Cultivated marine penaeid shrimps (such as Penaeus monodon and Litopenaeus vannamei) have high nutritional protein demands for optimal growth, ecdysis (molting), and tissue repair. Commercial grower feeds are formulated with 30% to 40% (and up to 45% for post-larvae) high-quality marine protein.

By definition, one thermochemical calorie ($1\text{ cal}$) is the quantity of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of air-free water by $1^\circ\text{C}$ (specifically from $14.5^\circ\text{C}$ to $15.5^\circ\text{C}$ at standard pressure), which is exactly equal to $4.184\text{ Joules}$ ($1\text{ kcal} = 4184\text{ J}$).

Energy density of macronutrients in aquatic nutrition:

• kcal/g is the physiological available metabolizable energy for carbohydrates/protein in mammals, not lipid.
• Reversal of values.
• In fish nutrition, the standard gross energetic values (bomb calorimeter values) are approximately $5.65\text{ kcal/g}$ (rounded to $5\text{ kcal/g}$ or physiological value in aquatic poikilotherms) for proteins, and $9.45\text{ kcal/g}$ (rounded to $9\text{ kcal/g}$) for lipids. Lipids are the most concentrated energy source yielding ~2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates or proteins.
• Protein does not contain 9 kcal/g.