In thermal processing and canning technology:
In-container thermal sterilization destroys Clostridium botulinum spores using established thermal heating systems:

• Indirect heating with pressurized saturated steam (A) in batch or continuous retorts/autoclaves (the universal canning standard).
• Forced convection hot air (B) in hot air sterilizing tunnels and ovens.
• Direct flame contact (D) in specialized continuous flame sterilizers (the Steriflamme process) where sealed cans roll directly over open gas burners at high temperatures.

Visible blue light (C) has non-ionizing low photonic energy and lacks sporicidal thermal capability for container sterilization (unlike ionizing gamma rays or high-energy UV-C).

In rice milling technology:

• Statement (I) is incorrect: Parboiling is an optional hydrothermal treatment (soaking, steaming, drying) applied to rough rice. Millions of tonnes of paddy are milled directly as raw/white rice without undergoing any parboiling; hence it is NOT a mandatory operation.
• Statement (II) is correct: During parboiling, starch in the endosperm gelatinizes and fuses together, cementing internal micro-fissures and chalky zones. This hardens the kernel, increasing resistance to abrasive shearing and dramatically minimizing kernel breakage, thereby maximizing head rice recovery (often increasing it by 5–10%).

Standard unit operations in crude vegetable oil refining include:

• Degumming: Removal of phospholipids and hydratable phosphatides.
• Neutralization (Alkali refining) (D): Removal of free fatty acids using caustic soda (NaOH).
• Bleaching (C): Adsorption of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and dark pigments using activated bleaching earth or activated carbon.
• Winterization (B): Chilling the oil to crystallize and filter out high-melting waxes and saturated stearins so the oil remains clear at refrigerated temperatures.
• Deodorization: High-temperature vacuum steam stripping of volatile odoriferous compounds.
  Pasteurization (A) is a heat treatment for milk, juices, and liquid beverages, NOT for vegetable oil refining.

Calculation of steam economy:
Steam Economy is defined as the mass of water vapor evaporated from the food product per unit mass of boiler steam supplied:

• Evaporation rate:
  \[ 100\text{ g/min} = 0.1\text{ kg/min} \]
  In kilograms per hour:
  \[ \text{Evaporation rate} = 0.1\text{ kg/min} \times 60\text{ min/h} = 6\text{ kg/h} \]
• Steam consumption rate:
  \[ \text{Steam consumed} = 10\text{ kg/h} \]
• Steam economy:
  \[ \text{Steam Economy} = \frac{6\text{ kg/h}}{10\text{ kg/h}} = 0.6 \]